Glacial Erratics

The divide between associative and formal structures occurs in many disciplines. While there may not be a precise definition of “associative” and “formal” that fits all these distinctions in different disciplines, a list of representative features can be compiled: Associative structures are usually fuzzy, complex, and emergent whereas formal structures are precise, defined or designed. Associative structures can be represented with words but also as maps, networks or other diagrams. The forms of the representations matter. For example, the associative content of poetry cannot easily be translated into other languages because of connotations. Formal structures can be represented using symbolic logic, rule-based knowledge systems, and conceptual graphs (Sowa, 1984). It is possible to translate between different formal representations because only the structure of representations matters (such as whether they are equivalent to first order logic) but not the form. In general, associative structures are grounded and depend on experiences, perception and observation. Formal structures on the other hand are often designed in a top-down manner and are theoretical. The main reasoning mechanisms of associative structures are analogy and recognition based on observation of similarity and co-occurrence; whereas the main reasoning mechanisms of formal structures are deduction, logical inferences and the establishment of causal explanations within a theory.    (0000ET)